Gavia stellata (Sea Mew Set with Stars)

Replication in "contemporary society is characterized by the loss of data, degradation, and noise." (Lev Manovich) Reproducing original watercolors for The Birds of America—which were augmented with friable pastel, chalk, and crayon—caused the naturalist John James Audubon (born Jean Rabin) much consternation; for the red-throated loon (plate 202), he relied upon engraver Robert Havell, who charged £114 for one ream (500 sheets) of paper, copper plates, tin shipping cases, and the work of etching, printing, and aquatinting.